Annotated bibliography on Flanagan’s (1954) article: The critical incident technique

Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51-4.
Retrieved September 5, 2009 from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit




Flanagan (1954) thoroughly describes the development of the critical incident technique (CIT), its fundamental principles and its present status. Flanagan (1954) has organized the content by following subtitles which deal with background and early developments, developmental studies, the procedure in its present form, uses of this technique, a summary and conclusions. The CIT is a tool for collecting data objectively that consists of a careful order of instructions of what to observe and the reasons to do it. Once the information is collected, it must be carefully analyzed in order to draw conclusions and take proper decisions that may help to solve practical problems. “[T]his technique obtains a record of specific behaviors from those in best position to make the necessary observations and evaluations” (Flanagan, 1954, p. 30).

Academic summary writing

Academic summaries must follow certain characteristics. It is advisable to include an introduction, a body and a conclusion and to use formal language and acknowledgements of sources following an academic style. As regards paragraphs, they should be balanced and they should contain an introductory phrase and proper connectors. Moreover, the summary points should be clear and complete.


A student’s summary in unit 3 of the postgraduate programme class Lengua Inglesa Especializada I (Pintos, 2008) contains an introduction section with the introductory phrase, “In her book ‘The Process of Paragraph Writing’, Reid (1994) describes the main characteristics of a summary” (page 20). This sentence is followed by a concise description of what the general purpose of a summary is.


Although the introduction is appealing, the body and the conclusion do not show effectiveness. The body is started with a short sentence beginning with a contrast connector where there is not a previous explicit idea to contrast. Furthermore, the explanation for how to write an accurate summary sounds farfetched. Finally, the conclusion does not have a proper linker and fails to develop why summaries should be balanced.


According to Pintos (2008), meaningful language can be composed either to tell knowledge or to transform knowledge. Many well-known researchers and theorists have stated that the construction of knowledge within a discourse community must follow some specific characteristics. Thus, those students who are interested in successful academic writing should be well acquainted with text structure and academic styles.


In conclusion, although the student’s summary commented above keeps balance and follows an academic style, coherence and cohesion could be improved. Success in communicating ideas and gaining respect from colleagues can be reached provided precise language and sentences are carefully used and academic writing rules are obeyed.

Reference

Pintos, V. (2008). Lengua Inglesa Especializada I - Unidad 3. Buenos Aires. Universidad CAECE. Retrieved September 15, 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2725

Critical incidents: Beyond the TEFL class

Many memories of the time I was about to get my degree in English teaching came to my mind as I was reading the article by Gonzalez, Escartín and Medina Pérez (2003). These writers describe the importance of the reflexive analysis of classroom events as a strategy for improving the teaching practice.

As a college student, I had learnt the grammar structures and verb tenses and I knew how to use a wide vocabulary in English. However, I had no experience in teaching and I felt that knowing about the different teaching methods was not enough.

Now I realize I should have been guided to reflect upon my teaching practice since Gonzalez, Escartín and Medina Pérez (2003) state that “[es necesario que los docentes] además de ser buenos conocedores de su material, sean capaces de observer el aula, de reflexionar (. . .) y de aplicar decisiones idóneas (. . .)” (p.102).

After working with the notes and the bibliography in the Teaching English as a Foreign Language class at university, I recognized that reflecting on my teaching practice and relating what I actually do in the classroom is extremely useful. I wished I could have had the opportunity to discuss the teaching methods with a critical eye and contrasted that theoretical background with real-life classroom situations.

On the whole, I strongly believe that as teachers-to-be, we should have been acquainted with detailed classroom observation to be able to identify what students need and how to adapt the activities and the techniques to each classroom by means of reflecting on different theories and other teachers’ experience.

Reference

Fernández González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N. & Medina Pérez, M. (2003). Los incidentes críticos en la formación y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria de ciencias de la naturaleza. Revista Universitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17-001. Zaragoza, España: Universidad de Zaragoza. Retrieved September, 2009, from http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417107

Lessons learnt at life college

Steve Jobs (2005) addresses Stanford University graduates with a commencement speech telling three stories. His first story encourages the audience to follow their hearts as Jobs (2005) did when he left college to take a calligraphy workshop. In his second story, Jobs (2005) remarks that he has succeeded in business because he never stopped seeking what he wanted.

Finally, he explains that recovering from a cancerous tumour has reinforced his idea of doing just what is necessary (Jobs, 2005). In conclusion, Jobs (2005) recommends the audience pursuing their interests to avoid living with the results of other people’s thinking.

Reference

Jobs, S. (2005). Steve Jobs’ 2005 Stanford Commencement Address. Stanford University: United States of America. Retrieved September, 2009 from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UF8uR6Z6KLc

An introduction to the Critical Incident Technique

Flanagan (1954) regards himself as one of the developers and users of the method called the critical incident technique (CIT). This summary is intended to provide a brief description of this tool which follows a careful order of actions and is used for gathering useful information necessary to explain human behaviour in certain situations.

An incident is “any observable human activity that is sufficiently complete in itself to permit inferences and predictions to be made about the person performing the act” (Flanagan, 1954, p. 1). An incident can be considered critical whenever it describes an action with a clear purpose and consequence.

In order to report observations and consider them as facts, objectivity is essential. For this reason, the CIT “should be thought of as a flexible set of principles which must be modified and adapted” (Flanagan, 1954, p. 9). These principles should include instructions of what to observe and the reasons to do it and can be defined by supervisors or by the observers themselves.

According to Flanagan (1954), there are certain steps to take when delineating general aims. First, the ideas of a number of well-qualified authorities can be collected. Second, those ideas are summarized into a short statement. Third, a general aim is developed and finally, it is analyzed by the authorities. After defining the general aims, observers must receive specific training on data evaluation and classification.

Critical incidents are an effective tool for collecting data. Moreover, to obtain objectivity, rules must be clear and specific. Consequently, four components to collect data are necessary:

a. A delimitation of the situation including information about the place, the persons, the conditions and the activities.

b. A decision on whether or not a specific behaviour which is observed is relevant to the general aim.

c. A decision on how important an effect on the observed incident has on the general aim.

d. The selection and training of the observers. (Flanagan, 1954)

There are four procedures for collecting data: interviews, group interviews, questionnaires and record forms. The most suitable for the educational field might be the questionnaire since, according to Flanagan (1954), “[it] seems to give results which are not essentially different from those obtained by the interview method” (p. 18). Furthermore, teachers could complete the questionnaire anytime and anywhere.

Once the information is collected, it must be carefully analyzed in order to draw conclusions and take proper decisions.

As Flanagan (1954) states, the CIT can be applied to obtain useful information in different fields, such as:

a. Measures of typical performance. People’s behaviour is recorded in a check list that follows specific critical requirements.

b. Measures of proficiency. This is intended to evaluate the degree of proficiency people have in dealing with certain tasks.

c. Training. Specific training programmes can be developed from the analysis of critical incident reports.

d. Selection and classification. Information can be gathered to establish the requirements needed for certain jobs or the possible attitude employees will have.

e. Job design and purification. In order to optimize members’ performance, each role consists of limited tasks according to the information obtained through the CIT analysis.

f. Operating procedures. The data may permit enhancement in operations.

g. Equipment design. Not only does the CIT permit improvement in the procedures but also in the design of instruments and tools.

h. Motivation and leadership. The CIT provides the necessary data to make conclusions on people’s behaviour.

i. Counselling and phsychotherapy. It is suggested that the information collected by means of the CIT may help to explain the development of patients’ improvement.

As outlined earlier, the critical incident technique can be used in different areas. Regarding the study of operating procedures, the details collected may probably allow members to analyse possible causes for their mistakes and achievements and improve their performance. Furthermore, concerning the equipment design, the CIT could be successfully applied to test teaching material such CD-ROMs, course books and videos

In reference to the study of motivation and leadership, the technique may help to enlighten teachers’ feelings towards diverse classroom situations. As a result, specific activities could be organized in a program so that educators have the opportunity to reflect upon their teaching practice and create a basis of teaching principles for their institution.

In conclusion, as Flanagan (1954) suggests, the critical incident technique has proved to be effective in many cases. Therefore it may be extremely advantageous to provide teachers with the possibility of developing it at schools and publishing the achieved results. Thus, professionals in education may show their capability to transform adverse reality.

Reference

Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51-4. Retrieved August 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2962

Academic writing teaching by means of reading comprehension and vocabulary

Purpose: To analyse what vocabulary to teach in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) courses.

Thesis: Students attending EAP courses should deal with core vocabulary and the possible combinations in which they typically collocate.

Audience: Teachers of English for Academic Purposes and college students.

I. Teaching vocabulary

A. Martin’s (1976, cited in Pintos, 2008) division of academic vocabulary

1. vocabulary of research-process including verbs and nouns

2. vocabulary of analysis including high-frequency verbs

3. vocabulary of evaluation including adjectives and adverbs

II. Teaching reading comprehension

A. Nuttall’s (1996, cited in Pintos, 2008) prerequisites to reading comprehension

1. same code between readers and writers

2. vast amount of previous knowledge

3. effective reading

Reference

Pintos, V. (2008). Lengua Inglesa Especializada I. Unidad 1. Buenos Aires. Universidad CAECE. Retrieved September 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730

Application of Bloor’s approaches in the classroom

Developing reading skills is necessary to improve and reach a competitive level of academic writing. Therefore, teachers should encourage reading in the classroom. According to Bloor (1985; as cited in Jordan, 1997), reading in academic contexts can be approached in at least four different ways. Some real-life examples for each approach are listed as follows.

The psychological approach is aimed at students’ practice of the processes involved in reading (Pintos, 2008). This can be done by means of exercises that focus on simple word recognition, and interpretation. An interesting activity is to give the students a list of nouns and ask them to find appropriate verbs in the text to match the collocation.

In the linguistic approach, the aim is to draw students’ attention to the words and sentences of a given text. Exercises are related to overt grammatical practice. Thus, students could be asked to recognise sentences in passive voice and in active voice.

The content-oriented approach has, as its main assumption, the idea to give students a specific purpose for reading to stimulate their habit. Consequently, students could be expected to read a short story and put some statements that summarize the events in the plot in the correct order. Students could also be given some pictures illustrating the sequence of events instead of sentences.

In the pedagogically-oriented approach, learning theories play an important role to motivate reading. Students are presented with self-access materials which they can use at their own pace (Bloor, 1985; as cited in Jordan, 1997). Accordingly, students could choose a short story and read it to summarize the plot and tell the class about it.

Bloor’s (1985) approaches can be applied by means of different activities. It is the teacher’s responsibility to offer a wide variety to lead students to become expert readers so as to grow as writers.

Reference

Pintos, V. (2008). Lengua Inglesa Especializada I. Unidad 1. Buenos Aires. Universidad CAECE. Retrieved September 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730

Analysis of academic writing resources

Howley & Howley (2005) have developed their position on rural teachers’ professional development. The authors’ use of language will be analysed through a brief explanation of two extracts and a detailed list of discourse markers and their function in the text.

In the second paragraph of their article Howley & Howley suggest that policymakers and educators see professional development as a way to improve the quality of instruction in the classrooms across the nation. Apparently, the right kinds of professional development would improve instruction and better instruction would result in higher student achievement.

The writers’ intention is to observe that the experts who design education programmes and systems believe that proper professional training may lead to develop better teachers who would deliver their lessons efficiently and consequently students may learn more.

In order to relate their ideas throughout the article, the writers use the following discourse markers:

• to present two contrasting ideas: however, but, nevertheless;
• to add information to what has been said: in addition, for example, moreover, furthermore;
• to show that the second statement follows logically from the first statement: so, as a result;
• to give another choice apart from the one already mentioned: alternatively;
• to order a group of things: first, second, the latter concern;
• to introduce related ideas: at the same time, logically, typically, arguably

Regarding the expression “[g]rounded in management approaches (...)" (Howley, A. & Howley, C. B., 2005. p.2), it is pertinent to remark it means that some improvement strategies find support in management approaches. The whole article presents an appropriate use of discourse markers and the technical expressions explained above may not cause difficulty for the reader to understand the main idea of the text.

Reference

Howley, A. & Howley, C.B. (2005). High-Quality teaching: Providing for rural teachers’ professional development. The Rural Educator. Retrieved September 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2809

What does English for Academic Purposes (EAP) consist of?

Purpose: to provide a general overview of what English for Academic Purposes (EAP) consists of.

Thesis: English for Academic Purposes deals with the requirements and the communication skills necessary for writing in formal education systems.

Audience: Teachers of English and students at college

1.0 English for Academic Purposes (EAP)

1.1 Courses of EAP

1.1.1 in higher education studies

1.1.2 for pre-departure courses

1.2 Courses

1.2.1 pre-sessional (full-time)

1.2.2 in-sessional (part-time)

1.3 Courses

1.3.1 formal teaching programs

1.3.2 self-access situations

1.3.3 distance-learning materials or CALL (computer-assisted language learning)

1.4 Courses

1.4.1 Teaching of English for No Obvious Reason

1.4.2 English for Specific Purposes

1.4.3 English for Academic Purposes

1.4.3.1 English for General Academic Purposes (EGAP)

1.4.3.2 English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP)

Reference

Pintos, V. (2008). Lengua Inglesa Especializada I. Unidad 1. Buenos Aires. Universidad CAECE. Retrieved September 2009, from

http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730